17 – ROCK AND ROLL

Rock and RollTypically, when R&B caught on, many insightful promoters realized that instead of having white pop artists cover black acts resulting in a whitewashed sound, it would be much more logical to seek out white performers with a fully developed black sound, especially if they could write their own material. If not, white staff writers could create new songs using current black trends as a framework. Thus, rhythm and blues was the matrix that white songwriters and performers used in adapting the new music to their own image for a predominantly white youth market.

Rock and roll was yet another logical musical progression initiated by the interactions between blacks and whites. Simply put - rock and roll combined hillbilly twang with the electric sounds of western swing served over a basic foundation of black R&B. The possibilities for variation were endless and the degree of blackness or whiteness of sound depended entirely on the locale or personal style of the artist. Structurally, it favoured a 4/4 meter made up of 8 notes accentuated on the ground and fourth beat. Eventually, rock music would become much louder than R&B.

It has been noted that disc jockey Alan Freed claimed to have coined the term, "rock and roll." This is utter nonsense. He may have re-introduced it commercially as a designation for the new sounds but the term had been in existence in black quarters since at least as far back as the 1920's. The expression had been used in ghetto areas for eons, simply as a slang term for the sex act. As a commercial music term, the examples of its use in blues are endless and the white vocal trio, The Boswell Sisters had a hit in 1934 with a number titled "Rock And Roll." Early in 1949, an obscure artist named Wild Bill Moore recorded a song called "Rock And Roll" on Modern Records. It is considered to be the first electric track featuring the words "rock and roll" in the title.

Critics often argue that certain recordings such as Jackie Brenston's "Rocket 88" or Fats Domino's "The Fat Man" were the first rock and roll records. I suggest that these were merely landmark R&B hits and certainly not fully developed rock and roll. I personally believe that true rock and roll did not officially appear until certain white elements were apparent in the music. R&B is purely black electric music. Rock and roll is not. It is painfully obvious that black music (in this particular case - R&B) was the basis for the new hybrid. Yet, without the addition of western swing or country, it would remain strictly R&B.

Rock and roll came to the forefront nationally after Bill Haley's "Rock Around The Clock" was featured in the movie, "The Blackboard Jungle." The song consisted of repetitive sax riffs, exaggerated drumbeats and frantic lyrics sung over a western swing band base. Haley had broken new ground and his band The Comets created sheer chaos wherever they played. However, Haley already over thirty, failed to create any mass appeal as a sex symbol and could not sustain his original impact. He lacked that elusive black sound that record executives were seeking. That exact style was later realized when a young truck driver named Elvis Presley wandered into Sam Phillips' studio to record a song as a birthday present for his mother. He had not as yet developed his distinctive vocal style but after the insistence of his secretary, Phillips noted that there was a definite potential. Physically, Presley was the ideal product for the youth market. Along with his natural music talent, he possessed striking good looks and a smouldering sensuality. When paired with guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, his musical potential came into full flower. Presley was the shot fired from a starter pistol heard around the world. Rock and roll was here to stay. It became a narcotic, an intoxicant and eventually an epidemic. It was the first popular music to be played exclusively by the young for the young. When rock began to dominate the airwaves, the TV program, "Your Hit Parade" (see The Sing Era) could no longer exist. The pop vocalists of the weekly show were unable to duplicate the essence of the new music.

Once rock and roll caught on, many white teenagers started following black music trends, also adopting black performers as heroes. And although cover artists continued to a certain extent, teens wholeheartedly preferred the raucous sound of the real thing instead of watered down copies.

FADS AND TRENDS

The 1950's have often been referred to as the era of rock and roll. However, on the contrary, the new music did not catch fire until the middle of the decade. For the most part, the early fifties had been rather conservative although a teenage rebellion of sorts was brewing. Through teenagers, black and white cultures were blending with the emergence of the new music revolution. A complete new set of attitudes and a vast spectrum of fashions and styles erupted.

Our stereotypical idea of the 1950's male rocker is rooted in the images created by movie idols like James Dean and Marlon Brando. The "hood" look was in. Apparently, Elvis Presley copied his image from southern truck drivers, adopting the greased-up pompadour and long sideburns. Shirts with turned up collars, T-shirts, blue jeans and leather jackets were in demand. The attitude was that of the tortured, brooding rebel - moody and introverted like the James Dean character in "Rebel Without A Cause" or cool and macho like Brando in "The Wild One." Of course, the great majority of teens were unable to display the complete look but there was always a tendency to veer in that direction when the folks weren't looking.

Girls' fashion trends were often geared to the rhythms of the music. Flared, crinolined skirts swung seductively as couples jived to the big beat. It was the age of the ponytail, saddle shoes and pennyloafers, neckerchiefs, ankle socks and sometimes tight skirts. In the late 1950's, a bizarre trend for shapeless dresses called the sac and the chemise hit the market. The male element was definitely not amused and their appearance was brief.

Dance crazes accompanying the music included the jive, the push n' slide, the stroll and the bop. Latin flavoured dances like the mambo, the cha-cha and the calypso also had their day. Later, more athletic dance trends evolved where partners didn't touch such as the pony, the mashed potatoes, the wahtusi and of course the twist.

AMERICAN BANDSTAND

In Sept., 1952, "Bandstand" debuted on TV in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with original host Bob Horn. He was later replaced by Dick Clark (Nov. 30, 1929 – ) in July, 1956. As a disc jockey/host, Clark surpassed the ground rules laid by Alan Freed, becoming the major promoter of the new music. The program aired daily and the majority of teens rushed home from school to catch "American Bandstand" as it was called when it went nationwide at 3:00 p.m. on Monday, Aug. 5, 1957.

It was really a sociological study of teenage behavior with Clark as the sympathetic master of ceremonies and fearless leader. When Dick Clark plugged a new recording, it was assured immediate hit status and many artists from Philly were given national exposure (see Teen Idols - The Bandstand Boys). And while the payola scandals beginning in 1960 ruined Alan Freed's career and ultimately his life, Clark emerged unscathed.

As the popularity and power of the show increased, the network decided to move it to California where it thrived well into the 1980's. It was the major showcase for new dance trends, fashions and talent in the rock era. "American Bandstand" was the big time.

On Feb. 15, 1958, The Dick Clark Show premiered on ABC TV as a showcase for rock acts. This Saturday night concert style program was aired in addition to the weekday dance shows.

BILL HALEY & HIS COMETS

ELVIS PRESLEY

R&B/ROCK AND ROLL CROSSOVERS

Although many major R&B artists like Chuck Berry, Little Richard, Fats Domino and Bo Diddley never really changed their original format, they were now considered rock and rollers. I suppose the criteria in determining such a categorization could be measured in blackness or whiteness of sound. I however, refuse to do so. As far as I am concerned, after 1956, the new term "rock and roll" seemed to encompass every music style remotely involved with electric music. Technically, R&B was black rhythm music and rock and roll was the R&B/hillbilly fusion.

Several black acts became more commercially successful pegged as rock and rollers rather than remaining slotted only as R&B performers. The tag - "rock and roll" was a gateway to international stardom.

JACKIE BRENSTON

LLOYD PRICE

SMILEY LEWIS

LITTLE WILLIE JOHN

LARRY WILLIAMS

BOBBY DAY

FATS DOMINO

CHUCK BERRY

LITTLE RICHARD

BO DIDDLEY

ROCKABILLY & THE HILLBILLY CATS

The classic rockabilly period of 1954-1960 remains the purest of all rock and roll genres and to this day, its format has never changed. It was essentially a music style created by country boys who incorporated black rhythmic elements into their music without losing a strong hillbilly base. It could have been termed modern hillbilly since the music was definitely electric yet sometimes fiddles and stand-up bases were utilized. Strictly a southern music style, it was often dubbed "cat music" - a derivative of the term, "hillbilly cat." Elvis Presley could easily have been the definitive hillbilly cat since the typical southern "good ol'" boy attitude was a required essence of the genre.

On Dec. 4, 1956, rockabilly history was made at a relaxed recording session at Sam Phillips' Sun studio in Memphis. Taking part were Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Johnny Cash and Carl Perkins. It was later released as a recording called "The Million Dollar Quartet." Basically, it was an impromptu jam session where the artists exchanged ideas and sang their favourite songs and gospel tunes. Of course, each would eventually become a giant in the music industry.

Once the formula for rockabilly had been defined, there seemed to be no other logical direction for the genre. Therefore, as a hybrid, it had come to a musical dead end - to the delight of its aficionados.

Later, in the 1970's, Dave Edmunds revived interest in the style, and in the 1980's, a young trio called The Stray Cats featuring guitarist Brian Setzer created a whole new cult following for rockabilly. The artists were new but the music had not changed at all. Its roots were steeped in the 1950's and its attitude and flavour dominated by its originators.

CARL PERKINS

JERRY LEE LEWIS

THE EVERLY BROTHERS

JOHNNY CASH

EDDIE COCHRAN

BUDDY HOLLY & THE CRICKETS

GENE VINCENT & HIS BLUE CAPS

JOHNNY BURNETTE

DORSEY BURNETTE

ROY ORBISON

JACK SCOTT

MORE ROCK AND ROLL PIONEERS

RITCHIE VALENS

THE BIG BOPPER

BUDDY KNOX

DALE HAWKINS

BRENDA LEE

WANDA JACKSON

RONNIE HAWKINS

DEL SHANNON

ROCK IN TRANSITION

By 1959, rock and roll was in a slump. Many of its originators were conspicuously absent. Elvis Presley had been inducted into the army, Chuck Berry had been arrested for violation of The Mann Act, Little Richard had joined the ministry and Jerry Lee Lewis had fallen from grace with the public because of his scandalous marriage to his thirteen year old cousin.

As the 1960's approached, rock was becoming sanitized and commercialized. The rock and roll rebel image created by Presley and his contemporaries had begun to be plasticized and packaged in the guise of safe, cute, cuddly teen idols who posed no threat whatsoever to the teenage female. Even when Presley returned from his stint in the army, his raunchy edge had been sanded away. The sexually explosive rocker had become the clean-cut boy next door.

Between 1960 and the beginning of The British Invasion in 1964, with few exceptions, pretty boy pop was a main fare of the day (see Teen Idols).

A SELECTED LISTING OF RECORDINGS FROM ROCK'S EARLY PERIOD

SKIFFLE

Skiffle is commonly perceived as a British street music of the late 1950's and early 1960's where makeshift instruments were used to emulate a combination of rockabilly and folk. Actually, the term "skiffle" originated much earlier in Chicago where simple acoustic music was played at rent parties. The instruments generally involved were acoustic guitar, washboard, banjo and tub bass. The songs were usually simple three chord compositions.

Later, in Britain during the commercial skiffle period, folk oriented material such as "Rock Island Line" was adapted as a basis for skiffle. Around 1955, the trend caught fire as a kind of street music where modern songs were played with the same fervor as the folk material. It was obvious that poverty was a major factor in its development. The instruments were cheap and sound equipment wasn't essential. It was working class entertainment, sometimes incorporating old English music hall songs and attitude. Many of the songs made famous by British music hall star George Formby regained their popularity through skiffle. By the end of 1956, it was estimated that there were over 1,000 skiffle groups in London.

The groups often called themselves jugbands, spasm or washboard bands.

In May, 1957, The Chas McDevitt Skiffle Group's recording of "Freight Train" went to #40 U.S. By the late 1950's, the most visible skiffle artist was Lonnie Donegan, who was famous for his recordings of "My Old Man's A Dustman" and "Does Your Chewing Gum Lose Its Flavour?" In their earliest configuration, The Beatles had been a skiffle band - not being able to afford electric equipment.

In mid 1950's Britain, skiffle seemed to go hand in hand with rock and roll. However, in the United States it was treated as a novelty, never really attaining any relevance. Skiffle was basically an expression of the British fascination with American pop music, serving as a springboard for the blossoming British pop explosion of the sixties.

LONNIE DONEGAN

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